The region of Lower Nubia between the 1st and 2nd Cataracts actually were part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and were known as the Dodekaschoinos, or Twelve Cities and were conquered by Ptolemy II around 275 which opened up the trade in gold and ivory to the Ptolemaic Kingdom through Ptolemais Theron and Elephantine. African elephants could also be imported for warfare, and although this came to an end in the late 3rd Century BCE the ivory trade retained its value.
This province would not be lost until the secession of Upper Egypt under the usurper Horwennefer that was supported the Meröitic kingdom which sought to regain territory through an alliance with the rebellious factions. Even after the rebellion was quelled by Ptolemy V, Lower Nubia to the South of Philae remained in Meröitic hands although the Ptolemaic rulers continued to be active in the regions of Philae, Syene and Elephantine (the latter to being within modern day Aswan). Technically the Dodekaschoinos was under the supervision of the strategos of the Thebaid but in reality it was governed by the military commander stationed in the region.
Upper Egypt and the Dodekaschoinos were by no means a “backwater”, they were integral to the economic and political developments of Egypt as a whole. While Elephantine was at the centre of the trade in ivory, gold from the Eastern Desert mines, and slaves, Philae was the religious and political hub of the province having been dedicated to Isis by Ptolemy V along with the entire Dodekaschoinos. The island’s centrepiece was the Temple of Isis which served as both a beacon for pilgrims from Egypt, the Mediterranean and Nubia, a nexus point for trade over the border, and a meeting place for the rulers of Egypt and Nubia. A network of communication and commerce existed between Mëroe and the Ptolemaic world through Philae, where the temple oversaw trade and donations as well as fostering a network of connections throughout Egypt and Kush, with some Nubians holding priestly offices at Philae and representing the Mëroitic king in diplomatic capacities at the Temple to Isis. The Ptolemaic kings also erected temples to Thoth and to Nubian gods like Arensnuphis and Mandulis at Philae, and during some festvals Nubian gods (i.e. the statues and their attending priests) made pilgrimages to Philae in processional voyages down the Nile. That Ptolemaic rulers from Ptolemy III all the way down to Cleopatra VII patronised this site is known, and many dedications record occasions such as festivals where Ptolemids visited Philae for ritualistic purposes.
The regions south of Philae was not actually Egypt but it is generally referred to as Nubia or Kush by historians or Aethiopia in many ancient texts, although it was part of the Egyptian empire at times. It saw multiple kingdoms and influential cultures but the kingdom that interacted with Hellenistic and Roman powers in Egypt had its capital in Meröe. These kingdoms adapted many elements of Egyptian culture in art, architecture, royal ideology and religious practices but was consistently distinct from it.
Earlier kingdoms in the region had capitals further north like the famous Kerma, and Napata. The Napatan Kushite Kingdom emerged around the 8th Century BCE, spawned the 25th Dynasty of Pharaohs and persisted after their expulsion by the Egyptians.
During this period we can see New Kingdom Egyptian religious and artistic traditions enter the Napatean culture, particularly in temple and funerary contexts. The Napatean rulers also used Egyptian theology to strengthen their own kingship, this included the incorporation of the concept of Ma’At, and the adoption of the cult of Amun by the royal dynasty as a means to legitimise their rule in Egypt and Kush. Temples to Amun were built by the the Napateans in Upper Egypt and in Nubia, and the traditional multiple coronations of Kushite kings was carried out at these in order to harness the ideological power of the king’s association to Amun, while royal women seem to have devoted themselves to it especially. The Osirian triad of Osiris, Isis and Horus was also integral to Napatean royal ideology and Isis was an important Egyptian goddess from the 1st Millennium BCE onwards and she was incorporated into the state cults of the Napatean kingdom as well although no temples her from this period are known. Much like Egyptian Pharaohs, Napatean kings were equated with Horus and the connection between the queen/queen mother and king relationship, and the relationship between Horus and Isis was especially strong in Kushite iconography and titulature, with many queens bearing Isis’ epithet of “Mistress of Nubia”. Unlike in Pharaonic Egypt, the royal women played a very prominent role in the ritual duties and the coronation of the king, and the queen acted as a mediator between the people and the gods in her own right, further increasing Isis’ appeal in Nubia. On this note we know of many vigorous and powerful queens or “Kandakes” who ruled Meröe like Amenirenas.
Following the expulsion of the Nubian Pharaohs from Egypt, the 26th Dynasty and the Pharaoh Psamtik in particular took steps to distance Lush from the Egyptian Thebaid region by placing garrisons near the border although this does not seem to have prevented exchange between the regions as effectively as may have been hoped for.
The land of Kush was far from stagnation in the Classical period however, as a matter of fact the kingdom’s robustness is why Ptolemaic and Roman forces never conquered further than the 1st Cataracts. Around the 4th Century BCE the Meröitic language comes into use in Kushitic inscriptions and from this point on although strong Egyptian and African influences are present in the archaeology, Hellenistic, Roman and Asian influences also come into play as a result of the growing trade network. Between the 4th Century BCE and the 4th Century AD Meröe near the 4th Cataract rose to prominence as the centre of commerce, culture and administration in Kush. Royal burial pyramids move from Meröe to Napata and back again between the 1st Century BCE and the 1st Century AD which implies dynastic changes. The Meröitic cult of Isis also bears a strong resemblance to that of Philae and the “Isis of Philae” is mentioned in stelae throughout Nubia which is unsurprising considering the connections between Philae and Mëroe. It has even been suggested that the conquest of Lower Nubia by the Ptolemies forced changes in Kushite relations with Egypt and with its southern neighbours in order to maintain the trading networks in exotic animals, intellectual ideas, gold, slaves and commodities, and in doing so precipitated the rise of the Meröitic dynasty over the Napatean.
Archaeological finds of Greek and Roman artefacts like jewelry and games suggests that Meröe did in fact have an extensive Mediterranean trade network in Classical Antiquity. This network included the Red Sea trade routes connecting North East Africa to Arabia and India, as well as land trade with Egypt. Other evidence of cultural exchange between Ptolemaic Egypt and Meröe is in architecture, as temples like that at Musawwara et Sufra were erected in collaboration with Ptolemaic builders and display elements of Greek and Egyptian styles as well as traditional Kushite designs. The so-called “Royal Baths” at Meröe dating the 3rd Century BCE bear strong elements of Hellenistic and Roman architecture comparable in some respects to Alexandria or Cyrene as well as depictions of Hellenised Nubian deities or Greek deities like Pan for instance.
Nubian envoys are mentioned in a variety of Ptolemaic and Roman contexts bearing gifts, tribute and diplomatic messages. The trade between the southern regions of Africa, Asia and Egypt were also integral to Meröe’s importance as a hub of trade for the known world in spices, slaves, gold, iron, timber, animals, ivory, silks and other items until Aksum slowly superceded it as a trading power around the 4th Century AD. Many references to Aethiopia, or Aethiopians are a reference to the region which was often vaguely referred to in such terms.
Augustus attempted to conquer the region following his annexation of Egypt in the latter quarter of the 1st Century BCE and Roman sources claimed that troops under the command of Petronius were even able to seize Napata although this is doubted. The first prefect of Egypt, Cornelius Gallus, successfully quelled rebellions in Upper Egypt and Lower Nubia and boasted of subduing the rebellious cities in 15 days, but these actions and his allegedly hubristic claims apparently led to Octavian stripping him of his command and replacing him with a less threatening prefect. Still, the Roman efforts to conquer Nubia between the 1st and 2nd Cataracts was successful and around 22 BCE a truce between the two powers was made with Augustus and Queen Amenirenas agreeing on a border at the southern edge of the Dodekaschoinos, and Meröitic/Egyptian trade continuing.
In the Roman Imperial period we know that the connection between Nubia and the Dodekaschoinos remained strong, with Nubians holding priestly offices at Philae and representing the king in diplomatic capacities at the Temple to Isis, and the importance of these temple networks continued until Philae’s conversion to Christianity. We also know that many Aethiopian or Kushite inhabitants of the region integrated into Roman society like their Egyptian counterparts, acquiring Greek language and education, citizenship rights and Greek or Roman names.
Sources
Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt: 3700 BC- 500 AD by László Török
Isis in Kush, A Nubian Soul for an Egyptian Goddess by Marco Baldi
The Meroitic Empire: Trade and Cultural Influences in an Indian Ocean Context by Randi Haaland
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