Since most research programs have primarily focused on the Roman and Punic past of the region, the research for these periods is still in its early stages, and we still lack crucial information about them. The western part of the Maghreb has been involved in an early exchange network with the Iberian Peninsula since the Neolithic period. Ivory and ostrich eggs have been found in significant quantities on numerous southern iberian chalcolithic sites.
At the same time, many Bell Beaker-type ceramics and Iberian metal weapons have been discovered in Moroccan/W. Algerian sites. The populations of the western Maghreb were thus exporting raw materials to the Iberian Peninsula in exchange for ceramics and metal weapons.
Local production of Bell Beaker ceramics are also well-established, supported by the discovery of a toothed comb in the Kehf Taht el Ghar cave. The Moroccan Atlantic coast served as a source of ivory, primarily exported to the Guadalquivir, Tagus river, and the Algarve region.
It is also interesting to note that Morocco’s Rabat region reveals a pre-Bell Beaker horizon, indicating its potential as an origin for the Maritime Bell B. art. Jan Turek suggests this unique style emerged in the early 3rd millennium BCE, “between Morocco and Extremadura.”
In the early phase, coastal sites in N. Morocco (Gar Cahal and Kahf-Taht-el-Gar) show connections with the Tagus estuary in Portugal. Bell Beaker culture thrived along the Moroccan coast and extended inland to the Middle Atlas and southern Oran (W. Algeria)
Furthermore, this Bell Beaker ceramic is often found alongside Palmela points, a typical weapon of the Iberian Chalcolithic period. In addition to these copper objects, awls and a flat copper axe from the 3rd millennium have also been discovered, notably in Kef el Baroud cave.
In Aïn Smene cave (near Fez), a Cypriot knot-headed pin and a Palmela point from the late 3rd millennium were discovered. This unique pin of Eastern origin, not found in the Iberian Peninsula, suggests potential trade links between France and Morocco.
It is also a period which sees the spread of fortified villages and Promontory forts especially in northern Morocco: Archaeological investigation at Oued Beht, has yielded radiocarbon dates of ca. 3350–2900 BC for a large village with fortifications, rock-cut silos, ground-stone tools and a unique and diverse pottery collection, which shares similarities with pottery found in Southern Spain.
In the same area, G. Souville discovered three sites of Promontory forts. They were protected by thick walls made of earth and foundations of rough stones and were also equipped with a trench; one of the site had a double wall. Overall, these sites covered an area of 2 to 3 ha.
In Morocco, the third and second millennia are also characterized by open-air sites corresponding to small farming villages dedicated to agriculture, fishing, and shellfish harvesting. The persistence of stone tools is also noted until the Phoenician period. Movements were also bidirectional as genetic studies found 2 North Africans in Chalcolithic burials: one in Sardinia (2345-2146 cal. BC, Anghelu Ruju site) and another in central Spain (2473-2030 cal. BC, Camino de Las Yeseras site), both in a Bell Beaker cultural context.
A recent study proposes that populations from what is now Tunisia may have reached Malta in the early 3rd millennium, evidenced by the presence of foreigners in Xaghra. This indicates that exchanges in the region persisted beyond the Neolithic period.
Later contacts with the El Argar civilization are seen in metallic artifacts on High Atlas rock walls and Argaric coffer graves from the early 2nd millennium BC. Bodies buried in jars in a tumulus necropolis in Zemamra (Morocco) also show Argaric influence.
Rock art in the High Atlas depicts Argaric and Carrapatas weapons, indicating exchanges with the Iberian Peninsula during the 2nd millennium BC. The art also shows rectangular shields with nested patterns, found in both the High Atlas and other Neolithic contexts in the region. These rock representations are found in important grazing areas and also demonstrate the survival of Neolithic practices such as “arches” and matriarchal idols. There is also a depiction of a local axe known as “pelte Axe,” characterized by a highly curved cutting edge : Similar axes are also found further south in Western Sahara and show resemblance to the “axe-idols” of Iberian steles studied by M. Almagro. Later, circular shields with complex central decorations and arch motifs on the periphery emerge, reminiscent of Late BA European shields. Referring to a discovery in Ireland (Churchfield), these shields may have been made of leather. They are associated with narrow triangular-bladed spearheads (as seen in the pic. above), depicted on Iberian engraved steles, identified as Late BA weapons. Here again, an individual with North African ancestry from a site dating back to the Early El Argar period (1750-1550 cal BC) in Zapateria was detected and he was apparently buried like the rest of the population.
The site of Rat in Morocco shows numerous strongly-guarded daggers, associated with the same spearheads and shields and they potentially are indigenous weapon without known equivalents north of the Mediterranean. Three types of axes (Type I, IIa, IIb) are depicted: El Argar-style “halberds,” Carrapatas-style axes (with wider blades, three rivets, reinforced with a rib), and a local type with a longer/narrower blade and unique handle features (not found in the Iberian Peninsula). Additionally, the engraved scenes in this environment attest to the widespread adoption of a pastoral way of life by the local populations, with herds predominantly consisting of bovids. Note that oxen pulling carts are also depicted. A Carrapatas-type halberd was found in a trapezoidal cist containing two adults in the Mers necropolis near Tangier and dates back to the early 2nd millennium. Its small size suggests it was a votive funerary object. An Argaric bronze axe was discovered at Wadi Akrech near Rabat). A similar axe was found in the Tiaret region (Columnata, W. Algeria), indicating connections with the early phase of El Argar. Another similar axe was discovered in Kharrouba near Mostaganem (alongside Palmela points), and another one is housed in the museum of Tetouan. The Kharrouba axe belongs to the “Neyruz” or “La Polada” type, widespread in the Early BA of Switzerland, Italy, and East. France. A copper dagger was also found at Cape Chenoua near Tipasa (Algeria), dating back to the Chalcolithic period. Here the dagger :
It is worth noting that no metal objects attributable to this period have been discovered east of the Algiers meridian. In Algiers itself, Dr. Bourjot reportedly discovered a unique palstave from the European Middle Bronze Age in his own garden.
In W. Algeria/E. Morocco, silo-shaped tombs of Iberian origin have been discovered. They have been linked to similar-shaped burials from the Chalcolithic and Early BA periods in S. Iberia. Additionally, this influence of the Hispanic bronze can also be detected in ceramics.
Iberian influences possibly explain the presence of the cremation rite in W. Algeria/E. Morocco, while in the E. Maghreb,it is a later introduction associated with the Phoenicians. This Iberian influence would also account for the burial practice of depositing weapons in graves. In the E. Maghreb, influences from S. Italy (Terra d’Otranto, Apulia), Sicily, Malta, and Sardinia are evident in funerary architecture (haouanet, dolmen) and flat-bottom painted pottery influenced by the Casteluccio style (1500 BC).
They also imported sloping-roofed housing architecture. These haouanet resemble the Sicilian hypogea of the Pantalica and Cassibile cultures, dating back to the Late BA. These “Italian” settlers facilitated the expansion of agriculture in the region and ultimately the emergence of early forms of urbanism. G. Camps describes them as fair-skinned, small, and slender. They would have replaced or assimilated the locals.
Possible contacts with sailors from the eastern Mediterranean basin from 1400 BC onwards are indicated by the discovery of Aegean artifacts in Malta, Pantelleria, and later in the outskirts of Carthage but also Aegean-like iconography in the decorations of many haouanet. For example, a bas-relief scene portrays a bull and a dancing figure, while another one displays symbols like a double-bitted axe and a V-shaped relief shield. The column-niche combination in Cap Bon haouanet originates from ancient Mediterranean traditions, notably Aegean. Kabylia’s megaliths are larger and distinct from the smaller dolmens found in E. Algeria and Tunisia. According to G. Camps, they originate from Sardinia and share similarities with the Giants’ Tombs of Li Lolghi. According to him, the covered alleys, such as Ait Raouna and Ibarissen in Kabylia, are older than the dolmens. These covered alleys are said to be “related” to the navetas of Minorca (Nau d’es Tudon site) and the Giants’ Tombs (Li lolghi in Arzachena). The megalithic structures in E. Algeria and Tunisia are believed to date back to the european Late BA. In contrast, Moroccan dolmens exhibit Iberian influences, particularly resembling the cists of the Iberian BA, and are older than those found in E. Algeria and Tunisia.
Minimal deforestation by 1000 BC in the Maghreb, but rapid acceleration by 200 BC. West had later onset,possibly reflecting the persistence and extent of a pastoral and nomadic lifestyle,while the east had denser sedentary farming, possibly influenced by late Bronze Age settlers.
The Althiburos site showcases rectangular structures constructed with durable materials like earth and stone, dating back to the 10th and 9th centuries BC. These structures provide evidence of a sedentary farming community involved in the rearing of cattle, goats, pigs and sheep.
The cultivated plants mainly consisted of cereals, particularly barley and durum wheat. Arboriculture, including fig trees, and notably viticulture, were practiced on-site even before the first contacts with the Phoenicians.
Local pottery initially lacks decoration, but from EN2 onwards, decorated pottery emerges with parallels to late BA/early European IA styles. Surprisingly, a few turned ceramic pieces from this pre-Phoenician phase are present, indicating early experimentation. ignificant human impact on the local flora as early as the 2nd millennium indicates a dense population and well-established agriculture in the region at that time. Indeed, investigations performed in the Aïn Draham region (NW Tunisia), revealed significant anthropogenic impact.
Genetic analyses of cattle from the site reveal that they belong to a locally domesticated species (closely related to Moroccan aurochs), contradicting theories of their importation from Italy.
Lixus (Morocco), the oldest layers have revealed the presence of “Graffito” pottery, which shares numerous similarities with those from the S. Iberian Peninsula dating back to the late BA. This type of pottery has also been discovered at other Moroccan sites.
In the same region, a Ballintober-type sword dating back to the Late BA, specifically the Atlantic Late BA (c. 1300-1150), has been found. Similar examples have been discovered in Spain (Ria de Huelva). C. Brugess rather interpret it as a Type IV “rapier” sword.
The site of Mogador also provides evidence of an indigenous presence predating the arrival of the Phoenicians. The oldest layers reveal locally made modeled pottery (found on other sites in northern Morocco) that shows affinities with pottery from the European Bronze Age. Maghrebian modeled pottery can be divided into three groups: “coarse” pottery, mainly consisting of cooking pots, pans, and frying pans; polished pottery; and incised decorative pottery, mainly comprising bowls, plates, and cups. They show similarities with those from the southern Iberian Peninsula, and for the ones with incised decorations, they exhibit links to western Andalusia. Paleo-Berbers migrated into the Sahara prior to the introduction of horses (thus before the mid-2nd millennium), as evidenced by Iheren-Tahilahi rock paintings. These paintings depict them wearing similar clothing and accessories to the Libyans represented in ancient Egyptian art. Note that domestic horses appeared in the Maghreb around the mid-2nd millennium BC, introduced from Egypt, while camels appeared later (8th-7th century BC). According to Pablo A. Pena, the Canary Islands, especially Lanzarote, were colonized as early as the 10th century BC, and Tenerife in the 9th century BC, predating the arrival of Phoenician merchants in the region. North of the Atlas, the linear painted art resembles Spain’s 3rd millennium BC art (province of Soria), indicating two distinct regions: abstract in the north (connected to the Iberian Peninsula) and diverse in the south (possibly influenced by Saharan herders).
The progressive drying of the Sahara, as mentioned earlier, led Saharan populations to settle along the Atlantic coast and in the northern fringes of the Sahara. In Tarfaya, Saharan herders (cattle) likely established themselves around the 3rd millennium. The Drâa region appears to have been the site of an independent development of metallurgy, or at least a type of axe known as the “Metgourine Axe,” which shows no parallels with the forms found in the Mediterranean region. This type of axe dates back to the 3rd millennium:
Human presence in the High Atlas region can be traced back to the mid-4th millennium at Oukaimeden, with microlithic tools and cardial ceramics. Rock art depicting agricultural activities from the 2nd millennium suggests a pre-Phoenician agricultural lifestyle. Stelae found in Morocco (N’kheila and Maaziz) depict human figures surrounded by concentric half-circles and arches, reminiscent of the petroglyphs found in Brittany, Ireland, and Chalcolithic stelae of the Italian Alps. G. Souville suggests that they belong to the Atlantic BA. One of the dolmens in Beni Messous (Algeria) yielded a small globular vase with a flared neck and narrowed base, discovered by Kuster, which is characteristic of the Late Bronze Age III. This necropolis yielded the oldest funerary furniture, including vessels resembling those from Corsica and bowls with decorative bottoms found in a coastal settlement. It also uncovered a small, curved pot with a classic Late Bronze Age III form. The metal furniture mainly consists of lightweight bracelets resembling early Hallstatt arm rings. The influences of Late Bronze Age and early European Iron Age can also be seen in the traditional Berber goldsmithing decorations, particularly those from the Aures. The presence of unique hemispherical bowls with umbilicated bottoms in this necropolis is notable. These bowls, typically found in European burials from the early IA, set this site apart from other dolmen necropolises in the Maghreb.
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