Introduction
By the tenth century, Central Asia was home to a diverse mix of Shiʿi sects, Sunni groups (mainly Hanafite and Shafiʿite), and various other ethnic and religious communities. During this period, sharp struggles erupted from the conflicting views of rationalists and religious groups, against the backdrop of political conflicts between local dynasties. Amidst this atmosphere, Ismaʿili missionaries (sing. dāʿi/hojja) were increasingly active in the area following the rise of the Fatimids in Egypt and Syria. One of those missionaries was Hākim Nāser Khosrow (1004–1088/394–481), a renowned Ismaʿili Persian poet, philosopher, and traveler in the Islamic East (Central Asia), who served the courts of the ruling class, but who suffered different forms of persecution until his exile to Yomgān in the Pamir Mountains. Nāser is considered one of the most important and talented Ismaʿili figures, particularly in light of his activity in the fields of religion, poetry, literature and philosophy (Hunsburger 2000). This study follows the persecution of Ismaʿili missionaries in Central Asia, focusing on the case of Nāser Khosrow.
- Political and Religious Situation in Muslim East at the Time of Nāser Khosrow
A variety of different religious beliefs thrived in Khorasan. In addition to orthodox Muslims, mainly Hanafite and Shafiʿite, there were also different religious communities, including Mazdaeans (Zoroastrians), Jews, Shiʿis, Khārijis, Moʿtazelis, and others (Moqaddesi, 252–253). During this period, sharp struggles erupted in the Islamic East due to the conflicting views between rationalists and traditionalists (ahl al-ra ʾy va-ahl al-hadith) (Kraemer 1986, 60–86). During the “Shiʿi Century” and even afterwards, religious conflicts arose not only between Sunni and Shiʿi groups in the eastern regions of Central Asia, but also among different Shiʿi sects. Several studies have already examined the early Ismaʿilis and Qarmatis; see . Berkey, 2003; Halm, 2004; Kraemer, 1986; Stern, 1960; Waterson, 2008. Ismaʿili missionaries had already spread to the East even before the Fatimids occupied Egypt and Syria in 969/358. As a result, a schism appeared between Ismaʿili Qarmatis and the Fatimids, leading to political, military, and religious conflicts between the adherents of the two sects (de Goeje 1978; Daftary 1993, 123–139; idem 2005; idem 2007; Halm 1996, 378–381; idem 1997, 53; Madelung, 21–73; Walker 1993; idem 1996; idem 2002, 180–181; Stern, 56–90; Pabani, 2012). One of the renowned early Ismaʿili dāʿi was Abu Hatim Razi (d. 934/322), who centered his daʿva in the city of Rayy and influenced the people in the surrounding areas of Daylam, Tabarestān and Isfahan in Iran. Many people became his adherents and converted to the Ismaʿili doctrine. As a result, many high-ranking people were also affected by this daʿva and became Ismaʿili supporters, including Mardāvij b. Ziyār, Asfār b. Shiruya.
The dāʿi Ahmad Nasafi (d. 942/331), too, influenced the Samanid Sunni ruler, Nasr b. Ahmad, to support the Ismaʿilis in central Asia (Nezām al-Molk, 253–257; Ebn Nadim, 1997, 266; Kraemer, 1986, 87; Hasan, vol. 3, 206–207). Another Ismaʿili dāʿi, Abu Yaʿqub Sejestāni (d. around 1000/390), and his adherents, acted on behalf of the Fatimids in Central and Eastern Iran (Daftary 1999, 29–43; Walker, 1996). Hence, a confrontation arose in those regions of Central Asia between the two competing Ismaʿili sects; adherents of the Fatimids and of the Qarmatis (Halm 1997, 53; idem 2004, 163–170, 175–178; Hasan, vol. 3, 207–209).
Nāser Khosrow was born in Qabodiyon (present-day Tajikistan) in 1004 in the district of Balkh, receiving an education that led him to serve in high posts at the courts of rulers. But, as noted, those posts and careers did not satisfy his passions. Propelled by a sense of emptiness caused by his lack of goals, Nāser Khosrow sought out an acceptable truth that would lead him to his targets. At the same time, he faced greater persecutions and problems that complicated his life further and obligated him to move from one place to another until his death in 1088. Compared with the situation of the Muslim East, the Ismaʿili Fatimids’ domain spread from their center in Cairo across Northern Africa, Syria and the holy sites of the Hijaz. However, the Fatimids also sent missionaries and worked secretly in other areas of the Muslim world, even those not under their control and which were called “islands ( juzur)” in Ismaʿili propaganda (daʿva). Egypt, thus, served as a source of inspiration, attraction, and education for many Ismaʿili believers, missionaries, and rational intellectuals from the Muslim East and other parts of the Muslim world. It is also worth mentioning that the Ismaʿili religious and educational institutions had flourished in Cairo, such as the al-Azhar Mosque, Dār al-ʿElm, majāles al-hekma/al-ʿelm (“sessions of wisdom/knowledge”), and the Fatimid Library (Mahamid 2006a, 4; idem 2006b, 37–38, 41–49; Halm 2004, 170–175; Walker 2008, 1–39; Hasan, vol. 3, 211–212).
Historical sources indicate that in 1044/436 there were several Ismaʿili missionaries (doʿat) in Central Asia inspired and supported by the Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, Imam Mostanser (r. 1036–1094/427–487). Those missionaries had spread the Ismaʿili daʿva in Khorasan and, as a result, many communities accepted the Ismaʿili doctrine. The Sunni Saljuq sultans and governors considered the political and religious strengthening of Ismaʿilis in Central Asia as forces working on behalf of the Fatimids. The Saljuqs began repressing and persecuting these communities and their activists (Ebn al-Athir, vol. 8, 39–40; Maqrizi, vol. 2, 49–50). Therefore, it can be assumed that the arrival of several active Ismaʿili Persians in Egypt, from Asia, during this period was a direct result of the suppression and persecution in the East as well as the attraction of Fatimid Egypt at that time as a safe haven and educational center. In addition to Nāser Khosrow, these activists included Hamid al-Din Kermāni, Moʾayyad fiʾl-Din Shirāzi, Hasan b. Sabbāh and others (Mahamid 2006a, 1–17; idem 2006b, 37–60; Daftary 1998, 64–66).
