The three campaigns of the Kingdom of Antigonus against the Nabataeans in the late fourth century BC. Which all ended in failure. After taking control of the Levant, Antigonus (one of Alexander’s successors) sought to subjugate the Nabataeans. Mostly to control the trade routes coming from the south, which made the Nabataeans one of the richest Arab tribes, according to the historian Diodorus.

1. Or to neutralize any external parties in the conflict existing between him and the Ptolemies. He equipped 4,000 foot soldiers and 600 cavalry, led by one of his commanders, Athenaeus, who headed to the Nabataean stronghold in an area known as “The Rock” (researchers believe it is Petra, while others believe it is the city of goods in Tafila).

1. The Nabataeans at that time were closer to a confederation or tribal alliance than a kingdom, as they would travel to trade and leave a few of them with the elderly and women in their stronghold. Athenaeus took advantage of their absence to trade, entered and acquired their wealth without strong resistance.

1. Then Athenaeus and his soldiers withdrew and camped to spend the night, thinking that they had succeeded in their mission. Later, when the Nabataeans returned to their stronghold and learned of what had happened, they followed the Greeks to their camp and took them by surprise, completely annihilating the soldiers of the campaign, as only 50 horsemen survived from Athenaeus’ 4,600 army, who fled with their lives.

1. After the incident ended and what the Greeks had looted was recovered, they wrote to Antigonus, denouncing the attack that had occurred against them. Antigonus responded to them by claiming ignorance of Athenaeus’ actions and his lack of knowledge of the campaign (to avoid inflaming the situation and betraying them later). However, the Nabataeans did not surrender their necks to him, and set up observation posts on the mountains.

1. Indeed, Antigonus prepared another campaign that exceeded the first in number and equipment. He gathered 4,000 foot soldiers and more than 4,000 cavalry and placed his son Demetrius as their leader. Demetrius walked to the Nabataean stronghold, trying to avoid detection, but Nabataean observation posts monitored his movements and alerted others using smoke signals.

1. The Nabataeans prepared for Demetrius, who launched his attack upon his arrival, and after a day of fighting, his soldiers failed to penetrate the Nabataeans’ defenses. The next day, the Nabateans and Demetrius made a deal requiring his withdrawal. Thus, the second campaign ended in failure because the Nabataeans were not subjugated according to Antigonus’ desire.

1. Antigonus scolded his son when he learned of the deal he had made, but Demetrius told him what he saw on his way back when he camped near the Dead Sea. The Nabataeans and residents of the Dead Sea region extracted asphalt (bitumen or bitumen) from it, which was a valuable resource at that time and was sold to Egypt for use in mummification.

1. Coveting this raw resource, Antigonus sent a third expedition led by General Hieronymus. He ordered the preparation of boats to extract the asphalt of the Dead Sea. However, what was not taken into account was the Nabataeans leaving in hundreds of boats, raining arrows on Hieronymus’ forces, eliminating most of them, thus ending Antigonus’ last campaigns in ruin.