Ancient Jewish Cosmology (Edward Adams)

As noted earlier, there wa s a long history of cosmological speculation, largely mythical, in the cultures surrounding Israel, and the Old Testament exhibits correspondences with their ideas. If cosmology was a longstanding interest in the ANE generally, it is probable that Israel shared that wide r interest from an early stage in its history.

The Old Testament seems to presume a three-level structure of the world, with a central earth, heaven above and Sheol below (Ps. 115.16-17; 139.8; cf. Sir. 1.3) (L. J. Stadelman, The Hebrew Conception of the World: A Philological and Literary Study (AB 39; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970), pp. 9-10. Though see also the critique of this common view in Jonathan T. Pennington, ‘Dualism in Old Testament Cosmology: Weltbild and Weltanschauung’, SJOT18/2 (2004), 260-77). Job 11.8-9 suggests a four-fold division of the experienced universe: heaven, earth, Sheol and sea. In Genesis 1 (cf. Ps. 19.1), the physica l heave n (i.e., the sky) is pictured as a dome arching ove r the earth, muc h like the bowl-like covering envisaged b y Hesiod. Th e curved structure or ‘firmament’ prevents the waters above the earth from engulfing the earth, unless its windows are opened (Gen. 7.11; Isa. 24.18). In other places the heavens are likened to a canopy stretched out over the earth (Ps. 104.2; Isa. 40.22; 44.24; etc.). The earth is conceived as resting upon foundations (Ps. 18.15; 82.5; 104.5; Isa. 24.18; 40.21 , etc.; Job 9.6 has it standing on ‘pillars’), which extend down into the cosmi c sea (Ps. 24.2). In Job 26.7, though, the earth is said to hang from above and rest on nothing. Jo b 26.11 speaks of the ‘pillars of heaven’ . The use of architectural imagery indicates that the world is being likened to a building (such as the temple). This analogy is given its most extensive application in Job 38.4-7.

Amount of heavens?

In post-biblical cosmological tradition, w e find a desire to structure and number the heavens. The notion of three heavens, which is probably reflected in 2 Cor. 12.2, 8 8 may have originated in the biblical formula ‘heaven and the heaven of heavens’ (Deut. 10.14; 2 Kg s 8.27). Th e idea of seven heavens seems to have been mor e common ; it is found in the Testament of Levi (which in its present form is a Christian redaction), the Apocalypse of Abraham, 2 Enoch and the Christian wor k Ascension of Isaiah. Th e seven heavens are often thought to b e connected with the seven planets, 8 9 but Yarbro Collins points out that there is n o clear indication of such a link in the early Jewish literature. 9 0 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch only speak of one heaven, so there doe s not appear to have bee n a consistent Jewish conception of the world in the first century CE.

2.1 . The Old Testament

In the Old Testament, cosmological reflection serves a theological purpose. This is clear from the nature psalms, esp. Pss. 8; 19.1-6; 33.6-9; 136.4-9, 104, which extol the variety, beauty and harmony of the created order, not as virtues in their own right, but as testimony to the majesty, supremacy and omnipotence of the creator. Admiration of the natural order and its splendour leads to praise of its creator. Natur e psalms not only elicit human praise; some of them, such as Ps. 148.3-10, bid nature itself to praise God (Fretheim, God and the World, pp. 249-68). T h e various parts o f the natural order, from the celestial bodie s and meteorological phenomen a to the features and creatures of the earth, are called to joi n in a universal acclamation and celebration of the Lord’s sovereignty and power. There may b e an implied critique here of the widespread tendency in ANE to deify parts of nature, especially the celestial bodies. God’s power over nature is also expressed in hymns and oracles which exhibit the theophany pattern: Go d appears and nature convulses at his presence (See J. Jeremias, Theophanie: die Geschichte einer alttestamentlichen Gattung (Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 10; Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 1965).

The creation o f the world is described in Gen. 1.1-2.4, which is conventionally assigned to the Priestly writer. Th e passage ha s rhythmi c features (the recurring us e of various formulae, such as ‘and Go d said’, ‘an d there wa s evening and there wa s morning’ , and ‘an d Go d saw that it wa s good’) giving it a poetic quality, though it is still mor e pros e than poetry (when compared with the nature Psalms, especially Psalm 104, whic h are plainly hymnic). Th e creation narrative of Gen. 1.1-2.4 ha s parallels with other cosmogonie s of the ANE , especially the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish. But the differences are mor e striking, the most basi c of whic h is that the Enuma Elisha depicts creation as taking plac e through conflict, with Mardu k killing the sea monste r Tiamat and forming heaven and earth out of its split carcass, whil e Genesis betrays n o hint of the conflict mythology; Go d creates by his own wor d and activity. Unlike the Enuma Elish, the Genesis narrative is thoroughly monotheistic (the plural of Gen. 1.26, ‘let us make’ , notwithstanding). Th e author/editor of the Genesis account seems to b e familiar with older AN E creation stories, but his stance toward them is predominantly antagonistic. Creation is described as taking plac e in successive stages, over six ‘days’.

1. World-construction is effected b y divine comman d (‘Go d said’, 1.3, 6, 9, etc.) and action – makin g (1.7,16,25,31 ) an d separating (1.4,6,7 , etc.). Th e climax of the creative process is the makin g of humankin d (1.26-30). Th e primordia l situation is described in Gen. 1.2: ‘the earth wa s formless an d void and darkness covered the face of deep’ . Whethe r Gen. 1.1 refers to a prior act of creation – that of bringing the unformed mass of 1.2 into existence – ha s bee n muc h debated. It is extremely doubtful that the author/redactor of Genesis thought in terms of creation ex nihilo, a notion whic h emerged some time later. Neverthe ­ less, the ambiguous relation of 1.1 to 1.2 created space for the importation of this later idea into the text. O n e of the ke y features of the creation story is the emphasis laid on the goodness of God’s creative handiwork. After each act o f creation, the statement is made , ‘an d Go d saw that it wa s good'(1.4,10,12,18,21,25) . At the conclusion of God’s activity (1.31) it is stated comprehensively that ‘Go d saw everything that he ha d made , and indeed, it wa s very good’ . A thoroughly positive assessment of the whol e created order is thereby given. All the components of the universe, not merely its huma n inhabitants, are declared to have an intrinsic value to God, an observation that ha s relevance for contemporary environmental concerns.
2. There are traces within the Old Testament of the conflict model of creation which is rejected in Gen. 1.1-2.4 a (Ps. 74.12-17; 89.9-10; Isa. 51.9-10), 9 4 though there are debates about how this imagery functions within the literary contexts in which we find it.

2.2. The Apocalyptic Literature

A fascination with the structure and operation of the cosmos is a notable feature of the Enochic literature, and this seems to reflect a tradition of cosmological speculation in the circle within which the literature arose. In 1 Enoch 17-36, which belongs to the Book of the Watchers (7 Enoch 1-37), Enoch is taken on a tour of the cosmos and shown places out of the reach of other huma n beings (Chapters 17-19 and 20-36 are twin accounts of the journey. On the former see K. C. Bautch, A Study of the Geography of I Enoch 17-19 (JSJS 81; Leiden: Brill, 2003). Reflected, for example, is the early Greek tradition that the earth is a flat disc surrounded b y a great river. O n his cosmic tour, Enoch sees the chambers of thunder and lightning, the source of all the world’s rivers and the storerooms of the winds (17.1-18.1). He is shown how the stars turn, and sees the cornerstone of the earth and the four winds which bear the whol e cosmic edifice (18.2-4). 9 9 He also visits the prison houses for the seven stars and the fallen angels (18.13-15; 21.1-10) and the places wher e the ‘the spirits of the souls of the dead’ are kept till the final assize (ch. 22). The reference to the seven stars (18.13-14; 21.3-6) is intriguing. Matthew Black connects the disobedient stars to the seven recognized planets 2 Enoch, whic h is normally dated in the late first century CE, is an account of Enoch’s ascent into heaven through the seven heavens (chs 3-37 ) and his return to earth to tell his family wha t h e ha s seen and inform them of comin g events (chs 38-66).

1. 2.3. Philo
2. Philo of Alexandria was thoroughly conversant with Greek cosmological traditions. His own cosmologica l thought is heavily influenced b y Plato’s cosmology, and also to a lesser extent b y Stoicism. 1 0 4 In Platonic fashion, h e conceives of the universe as globular in form, with earth at the centre (Mos. 1.212), the planets revolving around it, and the sphere of the fixed stars at the outer limit (Cher. 23). 1 0 5 Like Plato, he emphasize s the oneness of the cosmos and its indestructibility, and also like Plato, h e calls the cosmos an intelligent creature and even applies the wor d 0eos to it. He agrees with Plato that the universe owe s its existence to the goodness o f the creator.