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The Qurʾān mentions ships, sea-voyages, sea trade and storms on the sea in sixteen different verses and passages, besides references to ships in narratives about Noah (Nūḥ), Jonah (Yūnus) and Moses (Mūsā). Vivid, visual depictions render the moment of devastation for travellers on a ship facing a storm at sea; the audience is directly addressed, giving the impression that the verses present reminiscences of experiences familiar to the listeners. These depictions suggest that the Meccans had direct experiences with seafaring and navigation (Shahid, “Ships,” p. 604). In a recent article “La Navigation dans le Coran”, Julien Decharneux concludes that the use of the navigation motif in the Qurʾān is a strong indication of the untenability of the traditional Islamic view of the origins of the Qurʾān (Decharneux, “Navigation,” p. 142). We can certainly assume that the Qurʾānic audience was familiar with navigation (Sālim, ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz, al-Baḥr al-Aḥmar fī al-tārīkh al-Islāmī. Alexandria: Muʾassasat Shabāb al-Jāmiʿa, 1990; Al-Hijji, Yacoub Y, and Vassilios Christides. Aspects of Arab Seafaring: An Attempt to Fill in the Gaps of Maritime History. Athens: The Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Science, 2002. Agius, Dionysius A. Classic Ships of Islam. From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean, Leiden: Brill, 2007. Power, Timothy. Red Sea Region during the ‘Long’ Late Antiquity (AD 500-1000). Ph.D. Dissertation, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford, 2010; Elmakias, Avraham. The naval commanders of Early Islam. A prosographical approach. New Jersey, 2018, Khalilieh, Hassan S. Islamic Law of the Sea: Freedom of Navigation and Passage Rights in Islamic Thought. Cambridge University Press, 2019).

Just as Muslim commentators did not link these verses to any specific sea-related event during the lifetime of the Prophet Muḥammad. Al-Wāḥidī, for example, does not relate any occasion of revelation (asbāb an-nuzūl) to any of the verses that are concerned with seafaring or shipwreck. References to seafaring in the Qurʾān display an active engagement and re-interpretation of the universal imagery of seafaring. According to Hans Blumenberg, a German philosopher, seafaring and shipwreck is a paradigm of a metaphor for existence throughout human history. Metaphors are not only figures of speech; they are a medium that is necessary to ground abstract concepts in reality. Whenever humankind deals in abstractions or in concepts, such as truth, God or existence, it has to concretize them in some simple way to make them comprehensible (Adams, “Metaphors for mankind,” p. 156). In Antiquity and Late Antiquity “[t]wo prior assumptions above all determine the burden of meaning carried by the metaphorics of seafaring and shipwreck: first, the sea as naturally given boundary and the realm of human activities, and, second, its demonization as the sphere of the unreckonable and lawless, in which it is difficult to find one’s bearings” (ibid p8).

A number of modern scholars, much like Muslim exegetes, have pointed out the inner-Qurʾānic theological significance of seafaring as an example for God’s providence for humankind and as a sign ( Rubin, “Vehicles,” p. 412). Qurʾān commentators like Ṭabarī, Rāzī or Zamakhsharī refer to Qurʾānic designations describing ships and seafaring as an āya (sign), niʿma (benefaction), or raḥma (mercy). Some have also explored the symbolic meaning of the seas and the mythopoesis in the Qurʾānic narrative about Moses’ encounter with God’s servant at the meetings point of the two seas (Q. 18:60-82) (See Hughes, “Stranger at the sea”). The Qurʾānic references to seafaring are void of specific descriptions that could offer precise clues in relation to naval activities of the audience. They seem almost always rather unspecific, repetitive and based upon formulaic phrases, which do not indicate any concrete historical situation. The literary character of the Qurʾānic text cautions against a purely historical reading of it, which eschews the significance of the literary context and rhetorical means. Thus, Andrew Rippin noted in his discussion on seafaring in the Qurʾān: “The point is that historical reconstruction cannot always depend on the imagery deployed in a religious text as the Qurʾān” (Rippin, “Commerce of eschatology,” p. 130 fn. 21).

1. The sea and seafaring as example of God’s bounty: an element of affirmation in early Meccan Sūra
2. The first references to seafaring in the Qurʾān are closely connected to the establishment of an eschatological oriented worldview alongside the promulgation of a caretaking God in Early Meccan Sūras. Within this theological framework the imagery of ships and sea-faring occurs as an elucidation of the new worldview. Neither bravery, nor generosity or any family member will help to escape the disaster, when the cosmic order that guarantees life and survival will be destroyed: “When the seas shall be set boiling. [wa-idhā l-biḥāru sujjirat]” (Q. 81:6) and “when the seas swarm over [wa-idhā l-biḥāru fujjirat]” (Q. 82:3) (See also the oath in Q. 52:6: “By the sea boiling over” [wa-l-baḥri l-masjūr] and its reference to Q. 81:6). The borders that are set for the seas and their deadly powers are removed and their destructive forces will be unrestrained. The depictions are part of eschatological sequences in Early Meccan Sūras that list cosmic catastrophes, which shall precede the Day of Judgement (For the definition of this text type, see Robinson, Discovering the Qurʾan, p. 104). The extraordinary poetic late Early Meccan Sūra al-Raḥmān (Neuwirth, Frühmekkanische Suren, pp. 608-612) describes divine benefitsfor mankind (ālāʾ, sg. ilan), among them the creation of two seas (baḥrayn), that provide people with pearls (luʾluʾ) and coral (marjān), and ships (jawārī) Q. 55:19-25. It is generally assumed that baḥrayn refers to saltwater (milḥun ujājun) and fresh water (ʿadhbun furātun) mostly in terms of oceans and rivers, based on the descriptions in the later verses of Q. 25:53 and 35:12. Q. 35:12: Not equal are the two seas; this is sweet, grateful to taste, delicious to drink, and that is salt, bitter to the tongue. Yet of both you eat fresh flesh, and bring forth out of it ornaments for you to wear; and thou mayest see the ships cleaving through it, that you may seek of His bounty, and so haply you will be thankful.

Nūḥ/Noah and the ark: prototypical seafaring

Noah’s ark is thereby the first manifestation of God’s kindness in providing a means of transport on sea (Rubin, “Vehicles,” p. 412). Montgomery remarks that Noah’s ark in the Qurʾān becomes the archetype of all seafaring ships: “all safely arrived ships are manifestations of the archetypical Ark and owe their safe arrival to the benefaction of Allāh” (Montgomery, “Arab at sea,” p. 199). The first mention of the story of Noah is in Q. 69:11-12. The verses are related to the mentioning of ships in Q. 55:24 by the deployment of the same metonymy (jāriya) which, throughout the Noah narratives, will be the only instance in which this designation is used. The only other verse that employs jāriya is in the Late Meccan Sūra Q. 42:32 repeating the phrasing of Q. 55:24 (see below). All other general references to ships, are termed fulk – used as collective singular, as is Noah’s ark (Q. 26:119, 11:37, 23:27, 29:15, 10:73, 7:64). Another connection between the story of Noah and the recourse to seafaring is established in Q. 23. A passage affirming God’s power ends in Q. 23:22 with the reference to ships (fulk) that immediately moves on to the Noah narrative who is sent to his people and commanded to build a ship (full).

1. Ships as “Signs”: an element of persuasion in later Meccan Sūras
2. References to sea-trade and sea-voyages are among several repeated images of the surrounding world that are used to convince the listeners. In Early Meccan Sūras, “sign” passages are mainly used to affirm divine action as manifested in creation and nature (see Neuwirth, Studien, p. 195). In Later Meccan Sūras, they become part of polemical sections that stress the human capability to perceive God as the sole God, as creator and judge (Neuwirth, Verzauberung, pp. 43-44). Seafaring is a recurring part of the arguments and is presented as a divine sign. The Middle Meccan Sūra Q. 43:9-14 recalls the benefactions of God and his omnipotence to bring to life and to end life. It presents ships as part of divine creation and interaction placing them as equivalent to load bearing animals, Q. 43:12-13. The whole passage, v. 9 – 14, presents God as the creator and initiator of human well-being, all the while pointing at the inconsistency of the belief of the opponents. The verses expose their belief in God as Creator (v. 9), and state obvious realities of divine acting in human life in order to persuade the listeners of the truthfulness of the Qurʾānic message. The subjection of ships and animals as means of transportation is accounted as divine bounty (see Tlili, Animals in the Qur’an; for the relation between animals and ships, see esp. pp. 74-134). We find ourselves reminded of the poetic comparison between ships and camels, helmsmen and riders, yet their juxtaposition does not result in a comparison in the Qurʾān; they are rather linked to a common point of reference. The audience is requested to ponder upon what God has given them in the form of these blessings. God puts ships and animals at man’s disposal, constantly keeping the notion of humility in respect of His omniscience and the gratitude due to Him for His kindness.

Sara Tlili refers to Ibn Manẓūr’s definition and the usage of the expression in the Qurʾān, concluding: “Therefore, the concept of taskhīr consists of two components [in the Qurʾān]: authority and serviceability (or servitude), meaning that one party (regardless of who that party is) subjugates (or forces) another one to be of service to a third one. Whoever exercises that ultimate authority is the one who has meaningful superiority. In the Qurʾān, of course, it is invariably God who exercises such authority.”52 She points out that the concept of taskhīr implies complete obedience to God as well as the adaptability of the things that are said to be musakhkhar for certain purposes. Thus, ships and animals are subdued to human use and enjoyment; human superiority, however, is limited by their dependence on God’s mercy and bounty. The invocation (subḥāna lladhī …) in v. 13 frames the sea-voyage and the ride on animals, emphasizing the bond between God and human, thereby also rejecting the pre-Islamic belief of the solitude of human beings in the face of fate (dahr).53 Zamakhsharī’s commentary (ad loc.) points to the established common Muslim practice of invoking God when travelling by ship or mount by using these verses or parts of it. He refers to the Prophet’s habit to recite the invocation of Q. 42:13 whenever he mounted a horse or a camel, combining it with Noah’s invocation of Q 11:41. Such active appropriation of Qurʾānic expressions demonstrates their significance for the establishment of collective Muslim habits. One of the most expressive sign passages in which ships are explicitly presented as divine signs, is Q. 16:10-18.

Shipwreck as metaphor: an element of polemics in later Meccan Sūras

The development and transformation of the seafaring motif is particularly evident in the resumption of earlier phrases within different contexts. In Q. 42, the metonymy and the comparison from Q. 55 and Q. 69 are alluded to again (al-jawārī fī ‘l-baḥri ka-‘l-aʿlāmi), but rather than a hymn about divine grace, Q. 42 presents ships as divine signs that signify the helplessness and vulnerability of humans, Q. 42:32-35. Unlike Q. 55 these verses form part of a polemical intervention. They do not celebrate navigation as one of God’s benefactions, but emphasise the symbolism of seafaring as a token of the absolute dependency of humankind on God’s bounty. The adversaries of Muḥammad and his community are criticized in different ways for their attitude towards life, which does not accommodate the fact of a finite human life and their dependency on God. The inconsistency of their system of belief is demonstrated by the imagery of a lull and shipwrecking – the two most dreadful weather conditions for travellers on sea. In face of such devastating ordeals, that expose the fragility of human life, the Qurʾān scrutinizes the strength of their belief and depicts its failure. Particularly striking is the repeated use of this shipwrecking motif. In several instances, the hypocritical behaviour of unbelievers is criticised and their professed belief is shown as shaky, as featuring in Q. 10:22-23. Addressing the opponents is, thus, first and foremost, a rhetorical device and a strategy to gain attention and stir up emotion, the description itself changes from address to statement, giving the impression of a recurring argumentative motif. This does not entirely invalidate Izutsu’s assumption that pagan Arabs adhered to “temporary monotheism” in cases of emergency, but it urges caution in the use of these verses as solid evidence for a historical fact (Izutsu, God and man, p. 108).

1. References to seafaring in Medinan Sūras
2. The references in the Medinan Sūras Q. 22:65, 2:164 deploy the seafaring motif in a primarily affirmative function repeating and combining previous statements in front of a different – Medinan – audience. In Q. 22:65, the messenger, representative of the believers, is addressed with the frequently used phrase a-lam-tara (“don’t you see”), and the opponents as primary addressees, recede. The reference to visual perception places emphasis on the obvious nature of the described phenomena and their divine cause. The whole paragraph, Q. 22:61-66, is centred on fundamental statements of God’s actions. It iterates the phrases of Q. 45:12 and 14:32 almost verbatim whereby ships appear as sailing according to divine order, just as beasts of burden on land are tamed for the sake of human mobility. The “sign” character of seafaring is also emphasised in Q. 2:164, which recalls God’s benefactions in a concise manner and underlines human cognitive abilities to perceive the signs and understand their reference to their divine origin.

1. Charts
2. Non-narrative references to ships and seafaring in the Qurʾān & references to ships in narratives